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Laws Agains Who Motive the Crime

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State and federal laws intended to protect against bias crimes

Hate crime laws in the United States are land and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes (also known as bias crimes). Although land laws vary, current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the footing of a person'southward characteristics of race, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, and/or gender identity. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and campus police departments are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics.

Federal [edit]

Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 [edit]

Championship I of the Civil Rights Human activity of 1968, enacted eighteen U.South.C. § 245(b)(2), permits federal prosecution of anyone who "willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, initimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin"[1] or considering of the victim'due south attempt to engage in 1 of six types of federally protected activities, such as attention school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting equally a juror in a state courtroom or voting.

Persons violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or both. If actual injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the apply of firearms, explosives or burn down, individuals can receive prison house terms of upwardly to 10 years, while crimes involving kidnapping, sexual assault, or murder tin can be punishable by life in prison or the death sentence.[2] U.S. Commune Courts provide for criminal sanctions only. The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 contained a provision at 42 U.Southward.C. § 13981 which allowed victims of gender-motivated hate crimes to seek "compensatory and punitive amercement, injunctive and declaratory relief, and such other relief as a court may deem appropriate".

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994) [edit]

The Violent Crime Command and Law Enforcement Act, enacted in 28 U.S.C. § 994 note Sec. 280003, requires the United States Sentencing Commission to increment the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or gender of any person. In 1995, the Sentencing Committee implemented these guidelines, which only apply to federal crimes.[3]

Church Arson Prevention Act (1996) [edit]

The South. 1980 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Human activity of 1996 was introduced to Congress on June 19, 1996, but died because the Senate Committee found some places for comeback of the pecker. It was sponsored by Republican Duncan Faircloth.[iv] On May 23, 1996, the House of Representatives introduced H.R. 3525 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Deed. The Human activity was passed by both houses in Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton on July iii, 1996. This bill became law number Pub.50. 104–155. It was sponsored by Republican Henry Hyde.[5] The bill was summarized by the Congressional Enquiry Service as follows: "[the Church building Arson Prevention Act of 1996] makes Federal criminal code prohibitions against, and penalties for, damaging religious property or obstructing any person'due south free practice of religious beliefs applicable where the criminal offence is in, or affects, interstate commerce."[5] One of the changes in the bill was the sentence increase for "defacing or destroying any religious existent property because of race, color, or ethnic characteristics…" from 10 to 20 years. It also changed the statute of limitations from five years to 7 years after the engagement the crime was committed. It reauthorizes the Hate Crimes Statistics Deed.[six]

Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (2009) [edit]

On Oct 28, 2009, President Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Deed, attached to the National Defense Say-so Deed for Fiscal Year 2010, which expanded existing United States federal hate crime constabulary to apply to crimes motivated past a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or inability, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim exist engaging in a federally protected activity.

Emmett Till Antilynching Act [edit]

On March 29, 2022, President Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act, which expanded existing United States federal detest criminal offence law to apply to the crime of lynching, defining it as an act of 2 or more people in a conspiracy to maim or kill a person based on real or perceived traits of a victim as protected under federal law. Information technology was the first anti-lynching pecker to be passed past Congress post-obit over 200 bills filed since the Reconstruction era.

Country and district [edit]

Xl-seven states and the District of Columbia have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions beingness Arkansas, South Carolina, and Wyoming). Georgia, whose hate criminal offence statute was struck downwardly by the Georgia Supreme Court in 2004,[7] passed a new hate crime law in June 2020.[8] Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, faith, and ethnicity; 34 cover disability; 34 of them cover sexual orientation; 30 cover gender; 22 cover transgender/gender-identity; 14 comprehend age; half-dozen cover political affiliation.[nine] and three along with Washington, D.C. comprehend homelessness.[10]

Thirty-four states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action, in addition to the criminal penalty, for similar acts.[nine]

Thirty states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics; 20 of these cover sexual orientation.[9]

Twenty-seven states plus the District of Columbia have statutes that specifically cover gender.[eleven]

Eighteen states have hate offense laws regarding gender identity.[11]

Three states and the District of Columbia cover homelessness.[10]

State Classes covered Source
Alabama Race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, physical and mental disabilities [12]
Alaska Race, sex, colour, creed, concrete or mental inability, ancestry, and national origin [13]
Arizona Race, color, faith, national origin, sexual orientation, gender, and disability [14] [15]
California Disability, gender, nationality, race or ethnicity, organized religion, sexual orientation, and "association with a person or group" of one of the other classes [16]
Colorado Race, color, ancestry, faith, national origin, physical or mental disability, and sexual orientation [17]
Connecticut Race, religion, ethnicity, disability, sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity or expression [18]
Delaware Race, faith, color, inability, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, and ancestry [19]
District of Columbia Race, color, religion, national origin, sex, historic period, marital condition, personal advent, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, family unit responsibility, homelessness, physical disability, matriculation, and political affiliation of a victim [20]
Florida Race, organized religion, ethnicity, colour, beginnings, sexual orientation, and national origin [21]
Georgia Race, color, religion, sexual activity, gender, inability, sexual orientation, national origin, or ethnicity [22]
Hawaii Race, religion, disability, ethnicity, national origin, gender identity or expression, and sexual orientation [23]
Idaho Race, colour, beginnings, religion, and national origin [24]
Illinois Race, color, creed, faith, beginnings, gender, sexual orientation, concrete or mental disability, and national origin of some other private or group of individuals [25]
Indiana Color, creed, disability, national origin, race, organized religion, and sexual orientation [26] [27]
Iowa Race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, political affiliation, sex, sexual orientation, age, disability, and "the person's association with a person" of one of the other classes [28]
Kansas Race, color, religion, ethnicity, national origin, and sexual orientation [29]
Kentucky Race, color, organized religion, sexual orientation, national origin, and employment as a police enforcement officer, fireman, or emergency service personnel [30]
Louisiana Race, age, gender, religion, color, creed, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, beginnings, membership or service in, or employment with, an arrangement, and employment equally a constabulary enforcement officeholder, firefighter, or emergency medical services personnel [31]
Maine Race, colour, faith, sexual practice, ancestry, national origin, physical or mental disability, sexual orientation or homelessness [32]
Maryland Race, color, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, gender, disability, national origin, and homelessness [33]
Massachusetts Race, religion, ethnicity, disability, gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation [34]
Michigan Race, color, religion, gender, or national origin [35]
Minnesota Race, colour, faith, sex, sexual orientation, disability, age, and national origin [36]
Mississippi Race, color, beginnings, ethnicity, faith, national origin, gender, and employment equally a constabulary enforcement officeholder, firefighter or emergency medical technician [37]
Missouri Race, color, religion, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, and disability [38]
Montana Race, creed, religion, color, and national origin [39]
Nebraska Race, color, organized religion, ancestry, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, age, and disability [twoscore]
Nevada Race, color, religion, national origin, physical or mental disability, sexual orientation, and gender identity [41]
New Hampshire Religion, race, creed, sexual orientation, national origin, sex, and gender identity [42]
New Bailiwick of jersey Race, color, organized religion, gender, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, national origin, and ethnicity [43]
New Mexico Race, religion, color, national origin, ancestry, age, disability, gender, sexual orientation. and gender identity [44]
New York Race, colour, national origin, ancestry, gender, gender identity, religion, religious practice, age, disability, and sexual orientation [45]
North Carolina Race, color, religion, nationality, and country of origin [46]
Due north Dakota Sex, race, color, organized religion, and national origin (applies just to bigotry in public places[47]) [48]
Ohio Race, indigenous background, and religion [49]
Oklahoma Race, colour, organized religion, beginnings, national origin, and inability [50]
Oregon Race, colour, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation, inability, and national origin [51]
Pennsylvania Race, color, organized religion, and national origin [52]
Rhode Island Disability, religion, color, race, national origin or beginnings, sexual orientation, and gender [53]
Due south Dakota Race, ethnicity, religion, ancestry, or national origin [54]
Tennessee Race, religion, colour, inability, sexual orientation, national origin, ancestry, and gender (including gender identity implicitly) [55] [56]
Texas Race, color, disability, religion, national origin or ancestry, historic period, gender, sexual preference, and by status as a peace officer or judge [57]
Utah age, beginnings, disability, ethnicity, familial status, gender identity, homelessness, marital status, matriculation, national origin, political expression, race, religion, sex activity, sexual orientation, armed forces service, condition as an emergency responder, police force enforcement officer, correctional officer, special function officeholder, or whatsoever other peace officer. [58] [59]
Vermont Race, color, organized religion, national origin, sexual activity, ancestry, age, service in the U.S. Armed Forces, disability, sexual orientation, and gender identity [sixty]
Virginia Race, organized religion, national origin, disability, sexual orientation, gender, and gender identity)[61] [62] [63] [64]
Washington Race, colour, organized religion, ancestry, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and gender identity [65] [66]
Westward Virginia Race, colour, organized religion, beginnings, national origin, political affiliation, and sexual practice [67]
Wisconsin Race, religion, color, disability, sexual orientation, national origin, and ancestry [68]

Sexual orientation and gender identity [edit]

US land detest crime laws equally they pertain to sexual orientation and gender identity.

 Sexual orientation and gender identity recognized in land hate crimes law

 Sexual orientation recognized in state hate crimes law

 Sexual orientation recognized for data collection well-nigh hate crimes

1983
No LGBT hate crime statute at the land level
1984
California: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [lxx]
1987
Connecticut: Sexual orientation covered in detest criminal offense statute [71]
1988
Wisconsin: Sexual orientation covered in hate law-breaking statute [72]
1989
Minnesota: Sexual orientation covered in hate law-breaking statute [73]
Nevada: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [74]
Oregon: Sexual orientation covered in hate criminal offence statute [75]
1990
District of Columbia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in detest crime statute [76]
New Jersey: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [77]
Vermont: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [78]
1991
Florida: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [79]
Illinois: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [eighty]
New Hampshire: Sexual orientation covered in detest crime statute [81] [82]
1992
Iowa: Sexual orientation covered in detest criminal offence statute [83]
Michigan: Sexual orientation included in hate criminal offense data collection only [84]
1993
Maine: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [85]
Minnesota: Gender identity covered in detest crime statute [86]
Texas: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [87]
Washington State: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [88]
1996
Massachusetts: Sexual orientation covered in detest crime statute [89]
1997
Delaware: Sexual orientation covered in detest crime statute [ninety]
Louisiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [91]
Nebraska: Sexual orientation covered in detest crime statute [92]
1998
California: Gender identity covered in hate law-breaking statute [93]
Rhode Isle: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [94]
1999
Missouri: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute [95]
Vermont: Gender identity covered in hate offense statute [78] [96]
2000
Indiana: Sexual orientation included in hate law-breaking data drove only [97]
Kentucky: Sexual orientation covered in hate criminal offence statute [98]
New York: Sexual orientation covered in detest criminal offense statute [99] [100] [101]
Tennessee: Sexual orientation covered in hate criminal offense statute [102]
2002
Kansas: Sexual orientation covered in detest criminal offense statute [103]
Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in detest criminal offence statute [104]
Puerto Rico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute [105]
2003
Arizona: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute
Hawaii: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
New Mexico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
2004
Connecticut: Gender identity covered in hate criminal offence statute
Georgia: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed equally protected class in hate crime statute past the Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. land)
2005
Colorado: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Maryland: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in detest criminal offense statute
2008
New Jersey: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Oregon: Gender identity covered in hate criminal offence statute
Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in detest offense statute past the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
2012
Massachusetts: Gender identity covered in detest criminal offense statute [106]
Rhode Island: Gender identity covered in hate criminal offence statute
2013
Delaware: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute
Nevada: Gender identity covered in hate offense statute
2016
Illinois: Gender identity covered in hate criminal offence statute [107]
2019
Tennessee: Gender Identity covered in hate crime statute [108]
Indiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute [109]
Utah: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in detest crime statute [110]
Maine: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in detest crime statute [64] [111]
New Hampshire: Gender identity covered in hate offense statute [112]
Washington Land: Gender identity covered in hate criminal offence statute [113]
New York Country: Gender identity covered in detest crime statute [114]
2020
Georgia: Sexual orientation covered in hate offense statute [22]
Virginia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate offense statute [61] [62] [64]

Police and firefighters [edit]

On May 26, 2016, Louisiana was the first land to add police officers and firefighters to their state hate crime statute, when Governor John Bel Edwards signed an amendment from the legislature into law. This subpoena was added, in function, as a response to the Black Lives Thing motility, which seeks to stop police brutality against black people, with some advocates of the subpoena using the slogan "Blue Lives Matter". Since the inception of Black Lives Thing, critics accept constitute some of the movement's rhetoric anti-law, with the writer of the amendment, Lance Harris, stating some "were employing a deliberate entrada to terrorize our officers". Despite the killing of a Texas sheriff in 2015 and the killings of two NYPD officers in the previous year, in response to the death of Eric Garner and the shooting of Michael Chocolate-brown, there was fiddling to no information suggesting detest crimes against constabulary enforcement were a common problem when the bill was passed.[115] [116] A picayune less than two months after the amendment was passed, Baton Rouge was in the national spotlight after the Baton Rouge Police killing of Alton Sterling by two white constabulary officers. This sparked protests in Baton Rouge, resulting in hundreds of arrests and increased racial tension nationally. In the week during those protests, 5 police officers were killed in Dallas, and the week after the protests, three more officers were killed in Baton Rouge. Both perpetrators were killed and the motives behind both shootings were responses to the recent killings of Black men by police officers.

In 2017, Kentucky became the second state making it a hate crime to attack police officers or emergency responders.[117] This was part of a trend in "bluish lives matter" legislation, encouraged by The Heritage Foundation and ideologues such as Edwin Meese and Bernard Kerik.[118] That same twelvemonth, Mississippi expanded its hate offense law to embrace law enforcement officers, firefighters, and emergency workers.[119] In 2019, Utah added condition equally a police officeholder or emergency responder to the list of protected classes.[120] In 2020, Georgia enacted a new law creating the offense of bias-motivated intimidation, applying to attacks on police officers, firefighters, or emergency medical technicians.[121]

Data collection statutes [edit]

Hate Offense Statistics Act of 1990 [edit]

The Detest Crime Statistics Act of 1990 28 U.S.C. § 534,[122] requires the Attorney General to collect information on crimes committed considering of the victim's race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. The pecker was signed into police in 1990 by George H. W. Bush, and was the first federal statute to "recognize and name gay, lesbian and bisexual people."[123] Since 1992, the Department of Justice and the FBI accept jointly published an annual report on hate crime statistics.[124]

Violent Crime Control and Constabulary Enforcement Human action of 1994 [edit]

In 1994, the Vehement Offense Control and Law Enforcement Act expanded the scope of required FBI data to include hate crimes based on inability, and the FBI began collecting data on inability bias crimes on January 1, 1997.[125] In 1996, Congress permanently reauthorized the Act.

Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Human activity of 1997 [edit]

The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 enacted 20 United statesC. § 1092(f)(one)(F)(2),[ citation needed ] which requires campus security authorities to collect and report data on detest crimes committed on the basis of race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or disability.[ commendation needed ] This beak was brought to the forefront by Senator Robert Torricelli.[ citation needed ]

Prevalence [edit]

The DOJ and the FBI have gathered statistics on hate crimes reported to law enforcement since 1992 in accord with the Hate Offense Statistics Human action. The FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services Sectionalisation has annually published these statistics every bit function of its Uniform Crime Reporting program. According to these reports, of the over 113,000 hate crimes since 1991, 55% were motivated by racial bias, 17% by religious bias, 14% sexual orientation bias, 14% ethnicity bias, and i% disability bias.[126] David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act

Please note that the figures in the table below do not contain information from all reporting agencies every year. 2004 figures covered a population of 254,193,439, 2014 covered 297,926,030.

Victims per Yr by Bias Motivation [124]
Department of Justice / FBI Hate Crimes Statistics
Bias Motive 1995 1996[127] 1997[128] 1998[129] 1999[130] 2000[131] 2001[132] 2002[133] 2003[134] 2004[135] 2005[136] 2006[137] 2007[138] 2008[139] 2009[140] 2010[141] 2011[142] 2012[143] 2013[144] 2014[145] 2015[146] 2016[147] 2017[148] 2018[149]
Race 6,438 half-dozen,994 6,084 5,514 5,485 five,397 5,545 4,580 4,754 five,119 4,895 5,020 four,956 4,934 four,057 three,949 three,645 3,467 3,563 3,227
Race/Ethnicity/Ancestry 4,216 4,426 5,060 5,155
Organized religion 1,617 1,535 1,586 1,720 1,686 1,699 ii,118 1,659 i,489 one,586 1,405 1,750 1,628 1,732 1,575 one,552 1,480 1,340 1,223 1,140 1,402 i,584 i,749 1,617
Sexual Orientation 1,347 1,281 ane,401 one,488 i,558 one,558 1,664 1,513 1,479 1,482 one,213 1,472 1,512 1,706 1,482 1,528 one,572 one,376 1,461 1,248 1,263 i,255 1,338 1,445
Ethnicity/National Origin one,044 1,207 1,132 956 1,040 ane,216 2,634 ane,409 1,326 i,254 ane,228 1,305 1,347 1,226 1,109 i,122 939 866 821 821
Disability unknown unknown 12 27 23 36 37 50 43 73 54 95 84 85 99 48 61 102 99 96 88 77 160 179
Gender unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 30 xl 30 36 54 61
Gender Identity unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown unknown 33 109 122 131 132 189
Single-Bias 10,446 11,017 ten,215 9705 nine,792 9,906 11,998 9,211 nine,091 9,514 8,795 ix,642 9,527 9,683 8,322 8,199 vii,697 7,151 7,230 6,681 vii,121 7,509 viii,493 viii,646
Multiple-Bias 23 22 40 17 10 18 22 eleven ix 14 9 ten 8 8 14 ix 16 xiii 12 46 52 106 335 173
Total 10,469 xi,039 10,255 ix,722 9,802 9,924 12,020 9,222 9,100 9,528 8,804 nine,652 9,535 9,691 eight,336 8,208 7,713 7,164 7,242 6,727 7,173 vii,615 8,828 eight,819

Notes : The term victim may refer to a person, business, institution, or society as a whole. Though the FBI has collected UCR information since 1992, reports from 1992-1994 are not available on the FBI website. Single-bias victim totals accept been calculated for 1995-1998. Race and Ethnicity/National origin were merged starting in 2015.

2008 Detest Crimes vs. 2008 Crimes per criminal offense type [139] [150]
Department of Justice / FBI crimes statistics
Criminal offense type Detest Crimes All United states Crimes
Murder and not-negligent manslaughter vii sixteen,272
Forcible rape eleven 89,000
Robbery 145 441,855
Aggravated attack 1,025 834,885
Burglary 158 2,222,196
Larceny-theft 224 6,588,873
Motor vehicle theft 26 956,846

Roofing homeless people [edit]

Florida, Maine, Maryland, and Washington, D.C. have hate crime laws that include the homeless condition of an individual.[10]

A 2007 report found that the number of fierce crimes against the homeless is increasing.[151] [152] The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was thirty% higher than of those in 1999.[153] 75% of all perpetrators are under the age of 25. Studies and surveys point that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, just that nigh incidents never get reported to authorities.

In contempo years, largely due to the efforts of the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and bookish researchers the trouble of violence confronting the homeless has gained national attention. The NCH called deliberate attacks against the homeless detest crimes in their study Detest, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet U.s. (they retain the definition of the American Congress).[154]

The Center for the Study of Detest & Extremism at California State University, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed past non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional detest law-breaking homicide categories such as race and religion, combined.[152] The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes identify.

Contend [edit]

Penalisation-enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that, in Chief Justice Rehnquist'south words, "this conduct is idea to inflict greater individual and societal harm.... bias-motivated crimes are more than probable to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest."[155]

Coverage of white people [edit]

In a 2001 report, Detest crimes on campus: the problem and efforts to face up it, by Stephen Wessler and Margaret Moss of the Centre for the Prevention of Hate Violence at the University of Southern Maine,[156] the authors notation that "although at that place are fewer hate crimes directed against Caucasians than against other groups, they practice occur and are prosecuted."[157] The instance in which the Supreme Court upheld hate crimes legislation against First Amendment attack, Wisconsin 5. Mitchell, 508 U.Due south. 476 (1993), involved a white victim.[155] Hate criminal offense statistics published in 2002, gathered by the FBI under the auspices of the Detest Crime Statistics Act of 1990, documented over 7,000 detest crime incidents, in roughly one-5th of which the victims were white people.[158] However, these statistics have caused dispute. The FBI's hate crimes statistics for 1993, which similarly reported 20% of all hate crimes to exist committed against white people, prompted Jill Tregor, executive director of Intergroup Clearinghouse, to decry it as "an corruption of what the hate crime laws were intended to cover", stating that the white victims of these crimes were employing hate law-breaking laws as a means to further penalize minorities.[159]

James B. Jacobs and Kimberly Potter note that white people, including those who may exist sympathetic to the plight of those who are victims of detest crimes by white people, bristle at the notion that detest crimes confronting whites are somehow inferior to, and less worthy than, hate crimes confronting other groups. They detect that while, as stated by Altschiller, no hate criminal offence law makes whatever such distinction, the proffer has been argued past "a number of writers in prominent publications", who accept advocated the removal of detest crimes confronting whites from the category of hate crime, on the grounds that detest criminal offense laws, in their view, are intended to be affirmative activeness for "protected groups". Jacobs and Potter firmly affirm that such a motility is "fraught with potential for social conflict and constitutional concerns."[159]

The FBI listed 775 victims of anti-white hate crimes in 2019, more than victims of anti-Asian or anti-Arab hate crimes but less than victims of anti-black detest crimes.[160] Betwixt 2008 and 2012, anti-white hate crimes were the 3rd most mutual form of detest crimes, behind anti-black and anti-LGBT detest crimes (run into detailed Detest criminal offence#Victims in the United States).

See also [edit]

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964
  • Civil Rights Human action of 1968
  • Offense in the U.s.a.
  • Local Police Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Human activity of 2007

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Federally Protected Activities". United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Partition. Archived from the original on ane January 2011.
  2. ^ "Federal Civil Rights Statutes". Federal Agency of Investigation.
  3. ^ "Hate Offense Sentencing Act". Anti-Defamation League. Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
  4. ^ "Southward. 1890 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Human activity of 1996". GovTrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
  5. ^ a b "H.R. 3525 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Deed of 1996". GovTrack.usa. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved 13 Nov 2014.
  6. ^ "Civil Rights Monitor". The Leadership Conference. The Leadership Conference Education Fund. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 19 Nov 2014.
  7. ^ "Nation In Brief". The Washington Post. 2004-10-26. Retrieved 2010-05-04 .
  8. ^ "Georgia's Kemp signs hate crimes law after outcry over death". AP NEWS. 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2020-06-thirty .
  9. ^ a b c "Anti-Defamation League State Hate Law-breaking Statutory Provision" (PDF). Anti-defamation League. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June fourteen, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2021.
  10. ^ a b c "Florida among first states to make attacks on homeless detest crimes". Retrieved May 25, 2010. May 18, 2010, Orlando Sentinel, Quote: "Florida becomes just the quaternary jurisdiction to make attacks on homeless people a hate crime – behind Maryland, Maine and Washington, D.C."
  11. ^ a b "ADL Hate Crime Map". Anti-Defamation League . Retrieved Apr 8, 2021.
  12. ^ Alabama State Legislature. "Section 13A-v-13 - Crimes motivated by victim'southward race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or physical or mental disability". Code of Alabama . Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  13. ^ AS 12.55.155
  14. ^ Arizona Land Legislature. "Section xiii-701. Sentence of imprisonment for felony; presentence report; aggravating and mitigating factors; consecutive terms of imprisonment; definition". Arizona Revised Statutes . Retrieved 22 June 2019. fifteen. Bear witness that the defendant committed the criminal offence out of malice toward a victim considering of the victim'due south identity in a group listed in section 41-1750, subsection A, paragraph 3 or because of the defendant's perception of the victim's identity in a grouping listed in section 41-1750, subsection A, paragraph 3.
  15. ^ Arizona State Legislature. "Section 41-1750. Fundamental state repository; department of public safety; duties; funds; accounts; definitions". Arizona Revised Statutes . Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  16. ^ California State Legislature (2004). "CHAPTER 1. Definitions [422.55 - 422.57]". Penal Lawmaking of California . Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  17. ^ Colorado General Assembly. "Department xviii-9-121. Bias-motivated crimes". Colorado Revised Statutes. LexisNexis. Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  18. ^ Connecticut Full general Assembly. "Affiliate 952 - Penal Code: Offenses". General Statutes of Connecticut . Retrieved 22 June 2019. Sec. 53a-181j. Intimidation based on discrimination or bias in the first caste: Grade C felony [infra]
  19. ^ Delaware Full general Assembly. "TITLE eleven - CHAPTER 5. SPECIFIC OFFENSES - Subchapter 7. Offenses Against Public Wellness, Order and Decency". Delaware Lawmaking Online . Retrieved 22 June 2019. § 1304 Hate crimes; form A misdemeanor, course Yard felony, class F felony, course Due east felony, class D felony, class C felony, class B felony, class A felony. [infra]
  20. ^ Council of the District of Columbia. "Chapter 37. Bias-Related Criminal offence". Code of the Commune of Columbia . Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  21. ^ Florida Legislature. "877.xix Hate Crimes Reporting Act.—". 2018 Florida Statutes . Retrieved 22 June 2019.
  22. ^ a b Slotkin, Jason (June 25, 2020). "After Ahmaud Arbery's Killing, Georgia Governor Signs Hate Crimes Legislation". NPR . Retrieved April 1, 2021.
  23. ^ Hawaii Legislature. "§846-51 Definitions". 2018 Hawaii Revised Statutes . Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  24. ^ Idaho Legislature. "Section 18-7901. PURPOSE". Idaho Statutes . Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  25. ^ Illinois Full general Assembly. "Article 12 - Subdivision 15. Intimidation". Retrieved iv July 2019. Sec. 12-vii.1. Detest offense. [infra]
  26. ^ Senate BeakNo. 198of2019. Indiana Full general Assembly. p. 2. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  27. ^ Indiana General Assembly. "IC ten-xiii-3-1 "Bias crime"". Indiana Code . Retrieved 4 July 2019.
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External links [edit]

  • Database of hate crime statutes by state, via Anti-Defamation League
  • [Hate Crimes Pecker S. 1105], detailed data on hate crimes bill.
  • "Detest Crime." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crime_laws_in_the_United_States

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